EBOOK - ENERGY Renewable Energy and the Environment (Bikash Pandey & Ajoy Karki) | Cộng đồng Kỹ thuật cơ điện Việt Nam EBOOKBKMT

EBOOK - Năng lượng tái tạo và môi trường (Bikash Pandey & Ajoy Karki) - 438 Trang.

Hydropower generates over 1000 GW globally, producing more than 4000 TWh each year, around
16.5% of the world’s total electricity. This makes it by far the largest source of renewable electricity when the world is racing against time to combat climate change by greening its energy supply.
Although water wheels were utilized by humans as a source of energy since antiquity, industrialscale hydropower required the development of modern turbines starting in the first half of the nineteenth century, building on fundamentals of hydraulic machines spelled out by the great mathematician, Euler, half a century earlier.

Hydroelectricity saw a period of rapid growth starting late in the nineteenth century with the discovery and proliferation of alternating current, progress in manufacturing and metallurgy, and breakthroughs in civil engineering, which enabled the construction of large dams. By 1940, over 1500 dams supplied 40% of the electricity in the United States. Construction of new hydroelectric projects slowed in the 1960s when concerns began to grow about the social and environmental challenges associated with large dams.

CONTENTS:

Chapter 1 Development of Hydropower........................................................................................1
1.1 Ancient History of Waterpower.........................................................................1
1.1.1 Waterwheel Designs from Ancient Times...........................................1
1.1.2 Waterpower in Other Parts of the World in Antiquity.........................5
1.2 Waterpower’s Contribution to the Industrial Revolution...................................5
1.2.1 Waterwheel to Water Turbine...............................................................6
1.2.2 Hydroelectricity....................................................................................8
1.2.3 Size Classification................................................................................9
1.3 Drivers of and Deterrents to Hydropower Development.................................10
1.3.1 Climate Change..................................................................................11
1.3.2 Hydropower for Energy Access..........................................................12
Notes ...............................................................................................................................12
References..................................................................................................................13
Chapter 2 Basics of Hydropower................................................................................................15
2.1 Hydropower Types and Their Components.....................................................15
2.2 Power Output from Hydroelectric Power Plants.............................................15
2.3 Types and Components of Hydropower..........................................................19
2.3.1 Waterways..........................................................................................20
2.3.2 Dam or Diversion Weir......................................................................20
2.3.3 Intake and Headworks........................................................................21
2.3.4 Headrace.............................................................................................23
2.3.5 Gravel Trap and Settling Basin..........................................................24
2.3.6 Spillway..............................................................................................25
2.3.7 Crossings............................................................................................26
2.3.8 Forebay...............................................................................................27
2.3.9 Penstock Pipe.....................................................................................28
2.3.10 Anchor Block......................................................................................29
2.3.11 Support Pier........................................................................................30
2.3.12 Powerhouse.........................................................................................31
2.3.12.1 Inside the Powerhouse........................................................32
2.4 Storage Type Hydroelectric Plants..................................................................37
Chapter 3 Site Selection and Feasibility Study for Hydropower Projects...................................39
3.1 Overview.........................................................................................................39
3.2 Measurement of Head......................................................................................40
3.2.1 Level Machines, Theodolites, or Total Stations.................................40
3.2.2 Global Positioning System (GPS).......................................................40
3.2.3 Abney Level.......................................................................................42
3.3 Measurement Procedure..................................................................................43
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3.3.1 Measurement of River Flows.............................................................44
3.3.2 Flow Measurements Using a Conductivity Meter..............................44
3.3.2.1 Measurement Procedure.....................................................45
3.3.2.2 Discharge Measurement.....................................................46
3.3.2.3 Determination of K Value...................................................51
3.3.3 Flow Measurements Using a Current Meter......................................53
3.3.3.1 Flow Measurement Procedure............................................54
3.3.3.2 Calibration of Current Meter..............................................57
3.4 Flow Measurement Using Float Method.........................................................58
3.4.1 Float Method Procedure.....................................................................58
3.5 Sizing of a Micro or Mini Hydropower Plant..................................................59
3.5.1 Flow Duration Curve..........................................................................61
3.6 Site Selection...................................................................................................63
3.6.1 Market Study and Licensing..............................................................63
3.6.2 Site Selection and Layout...................................................................68
3.6.3 Feasibility Study.................................................................................69
3.7 Project Implementation Schedule....................................................................73
Chapter 4 Intake and Diversion Works.......................................................................................77
4.1 Overview.........................................................................................................77
4.2 Types of Intake................................................................................................78
4.2.1 Side Intake..........................................................................................78
4.2.2 Bottom Intake.....................................................................................80
4.2.3 Frontal Intake.....................................................................................82
4.2.4 Diversion Weir....................................................................................83
4.3 Trash Racks for Intakes...................................................................................87
4.3.1 Orifice Design....................................................................................87
4.3.2 Use of Gates at Orifice.......................................................................91
4.4 River Training Works......................................................................................93
4.4.1 Head Over Weir..................................................................................94
References..................................................................................................................95
Chapter 5 Headrace.....................................................................................................................97
5.1 Overview.........................................................................................................97
5.2 Basic Criteria for Headrace Sizing..................................................................97
5.2.1 Other Considerations for Headrace Canals......................................101
5.2.1.1 Earthen Canal...................................................................102
5.2.1.2 Stone Masonry Canal.......................................................103
5.2.1.3 Concrete Canals................................................................104
5.3 Headrace Canal Design.................................................................................105
5.3.1 Manning’s Equation.........................................................................105
5.3.2 Headrace Canal Design Procedure..................................................106
5.4 Spillways........................................................................................................112
5.4.1 Location of Spillways.......................................................................112
5.4.2 Spillway Design................................................................................112
5.4.3 Design of Spillway...........................................................................116
5.5 Headrace Pipe................................................................................................116
5.5.1 General.............................................................................................116
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5.5.2 Design Criteria.................................................................................116
5.5.3 Design Procedure.............................................................................117
References................................................................................................................122
Chapter 6 Gravel Trap, Settling Basin, and Forebay................................................................123
6.1 Overview.......................................................................................................123
6.1.1 Functions of the Structures..............................................................123
6.1.2 Location of Structure.......................................................................124
6.2 Sediment Transport Capacity of River..........................................................126
6.3 Theory of Sedimentation...............................................................................126
6.3.1 Stokes Law.......................................................................................126
6.3.2 Settling Velocity...............................................................................128
6.3.3 Temperature Correction...................................................................128
6.3.4 Turbulence in Settling Basin............................................................128
6.3.5 Theory of Sediment Transport.........................................................129
6.3.6 Mechanics of Sediment Transport (Tractive Force Theory)............129
6.3.6.1 Shield’s Formula...............................................................130
6.4 Gravel Trap....................................................................................................132
6.4.1 Components of Gravel Trap.............................................................132
6.4.2 Types of Gravel Trap........................................................................133
6.4.3 Design Criteria of Gravel Trap.........................................................134
6.4.4 Practical Considerations...................................................................135
6.5 Settling Basin................................................................................................135
6.5.1 Components of Settling Basin..........................................................136
6.5.1.1 Inlet Zone..........................................................................136
6.5.1.2 Settling Zone....................................................................137
6.5.1.3 Outlet Zone.......................................................................137
6.5.2 Types of Settling Basin....................................................................140
6.5.3 Selection of Type of Settling Basin..................................................140
6.5.3.1 Ease of Operation.............................................................140
6.5.3.2 Water Availability.............................................................140
6.5.3.3 Cost of Construction.........................................................140
6.5.3.4 Power Requirement...........................................................140
6.5.4 Design Criteria.................................................................................141
6.5.4.1 Settling Capacity..............................................................141
6.5.4.2 Storage Capacity...............................................................141
6.5.4.3 Flushing Capacity.............................................................141
6.5.5 Basic Principles for Design of Settling Basin..................................141
6.5.6 Fall Velocity of Sediment and Particle Size.....................................142
6.5.7 Settling Basin Design.......................................................................144
6.5.8 Efficiency of Settling Basin..............................................................144
6.5.9 Camp’s Method................................................................................144
6.5.10 Storage Design.................................................................................145
6.5.11 Flushing Design................................................................................145
6.6 Forebay..........................................................................................................148
6.6.1 Components of Forebay....................................................................149
6.6.2 Design Criteria.................................................................................149
6.7 Spillway.........................................................................................................149
6.8 Structural Design of Settling Basin and Forebay..........................................149
References................................................................................................................155
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Chapter 7 Penstocks..................................................................................................................157
7.1 Overview.......................................................................................................157
7.2 Selection of the Penstock Alignment............................................................157
7.2.1 Forebay Location..............................................................................157
7.2.2 Practical Ground Slope....................................................................157
7.2.3 Minimum Number of Bends............................................................158
7.2.4 Space for Powerhouse Area..............................................................158
7.2.5 Stability............................................................................................158
7.2.6 Other Site-Specific Conditions.........................................................159
7.3 Profile of the Selected Alignment.................................................................159
7.4 Selection of Pipe............................................................................................160
7.4.1 Pipe Materials..................................................................................160
7.4.1.1 Steel..................................................................................160
7.4.1.2 HDPE................................................................................161
7.4.1.3 GRP..................................................................................161
7.4.2 Pipe Diameter...................................................................................161
7.4.2.1 Head Loss along the Pipe.................................................161
7.4.2.2 Abrasion............................................................................162
7.4.2.3 Cost of Penstock...............................................................162
7.4.2.4 Governing Condition of the Turbine/Cost of Turbine
Governor...........................................................................162
7.4.2.5 Limitation of Pipe Manufacturers....................................163
7.4.3 Pipe Optimization............................................................................163
7.4.3.1 Procedure to Select the Pipe Diameter.............................163
7.4.3.2 Calculate Thickness of Pipe.............................................167
7.4.3.3 Calculate the Cost.............................................................167
7.4.3.4 Select the Pipe...................................................................167
7.5 Surge Pressure in Penstock............................................................................167
7.5.1 General.............................................................................................167
7.5.2 Pelton Turbine..................................................................................169
7.5.3 Cross-Flow Turbine..........................................................................170
7.5.4 Quick Method for Small Schemes with Cross-Flow Turbines.........171
7.6 Pipe Wall Thickness......................................................................................171
7.6.1 Positive Internal Pressure.................................................................171
7.6.2 Negative Internal Pressure...............................................................172
7.6.3 Transportation Requirements...........................................................173
7.6.4 Embedded Penstock.........................................................................173
7.7 Penstock Accessories.....................................................................................173
7.7.1 Air Vents and Air Valves.................................................................173
7.7.2 Drain Pipes.......................................................................................173
7.7.3 Pressure Relief Valves......................................................................174
7.7.4 Bends and Branches.........................................................................174
7.8 Pipe Jointing..................................................................................................174
7.8.1 General.............................................................................................174
7.8.2 Site Welding.....................................................................................175
7.8.3 Flange Connection...........................................................................175
7.8.4 HDPE and PVC Pipes......................................................................175
7.9 Pipe Lengths..................................................................................................176
7.9.1 Mild Steel Pipe.................................................................................176
7.9.2 HDPE and PVC Pipes......................................................................176
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7.10 Exposed versus Buried Penstock...................................................................177
7.10.1 Expansion Joints...............................................................................177
7.10.1.1 Mild Steel Pipes................................................................178
7.10.1.2 HDPE Pipes......................................................................178
7.10.1.3 PVC Pipes.........................................................................178
7.10.1.4 Sizing of Expansion Joints................................................178
7.11 Painting..........................................................................................................179
7.11.1 Outside Surface of Aboveground Mild Steel Pipes..........................179
7.11.2 Outside Surface Pipe Which Will Be Buried or Cast
into Anchor Blocks...........................................................................179
7.11.3 Inside Surface of Pipes.....................................................................179
7.12 Installation.....................................................................................................180
7.13 Maintenance..................................................................................................181
7.14 Checklist for Penstock Work.........................................................................181
References................................................................................................................184
Chapter 8 Powerhouse...............................................................................................................185
8.1 Overview.......................................................................................................185
8.2 Classification of the Powerhouse...................................................................185
8.3 Equipment and Accessories in the Powerhouse............................................185
8.3.1 Other Components and Accessories.................................................186
8.4 Layout of Powerhouse...................................................................................186
8.4.1 Arrangement of Turbines and Generator.........................................187
8.5 Components of Powerhouse Structure..........................................................188
8.6 Site Selection of the Powerhouse...................................................................189
8.7 Design of the Powerhouse.............................................................................189
8.7.1 General.............................................................................................189
8.7.2 Sizing of the Powerhouse.................................................................190
8.7.3 Examples of Powerhouse Layout......................................................190
8.8 Design of Machine Foundation.....................................................................192
8.8.1 General Guideline for Machine Foundation....................................196
8.8.2 Stability of Machine Foundation......................................................196
8.8.3 Vibration in Powerhouse..................................................................197
8.8.4 Analysis of Vibration and Empirical Design Methods....................198
8.9 Design of Superstructure...............................................................................198
8.9.1 Analysis and Design of Superstructure............................................199
8.10 Construction of Powerhouse..........................................................................199
8.10.1 Construction Sequence of Powerhouse............................................199
8.10.2 Guideline for Concrete Works..........................................................200
8.11 Tailrace..........................................................................................................207
8.11.1 General.............................................................................................207
8.11.2 Design of Tailrace............................................................................207
References................................................................................................................207
Chapter 9 Hydraulic Turbines...................................................................................................209
9.1 Basic Theory..................................................................................................209
9.1.1 Turbine Power Output......................................................................210
9.1.2 Transfer of Energy to the Runner.....................................................212
9.1.3 Improving Efficiency of Energy Transfer........................................216
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9.1.4 Velocity Triangles............................................................................218
9.1.4.1 Velocity Triangles for Reaction Turbines.........................225
9.2 Types of Turbines..........................................................................................230
9.2.1 Specific Speed..................................................................................232
9.2.2 Similar Turbines...............................................................................235
References................................................................................................................238
Chapter 10 Impulse Turbines......................................................................................................239
10.1 Pelton Turbines..............................................................................................239
10.1.1 Basic Calculations............................................................................239
10.1.2 Nozzles.............................................................................................243
10.1.2.1 Spear Valves.....................................................................243
10.1.3 Runner..............................................................................................245
10.1.3.1 Bucket Design...................................................................245
10.1.3.2 RPM of the Runner as a Function of Net Head
and Runner Diameter........................................................245
10.1.3.3 Jet Diameter as a Function of Head and Flow..................248
10.1.3.4 Relationship between Jet Diameter
and Runner Diameter........................................................250
10.1.3.5 Relationship between Runner Diameter
and Number of Buckets....................................................250
10.1.3.6 Matching Runner Diameter and Flow..............................250
10.2 Turgo Turbines...............................................................................................252
10.3 Cross-Flow Turbine.......................................................................................255
10.3.1 Basic Calculations............................................................................256
10.3.1.1 Flow Path and Blade Geometry........................................257
10.3.1.2 Blade Angle......................................................................260
10.3.1.3 Inlet Curve........................................................................260
10.3.1.4 Runner Diameter..............................................................261
10.3.2 Part Flow Efficiency.........................................................................263
References................................................................................................................265
Chapter 11 Reaction Tu r bines.....................................................................................................267
11.1 Basic Calculations.........................................................................................267
11.1.1 Energy Equation...............................................................................271
11.1.2 Euler Equation and Nature of Energy Transfer................................274
11.1.3 Degree of Reaction...........................................................................277
11.2 Draft Tubes....................................................................................................278
11.3 Cavitation.......................................................................................................282
11.4 Francis Turbine..............................................................................................283
11.4.1 Power Output and Efficiency of Francis Turbines............................284
11.4.1.1 Working Proportions........................................................285
11.4.2 Design of the Francis Turbine Runner.............................................286
11.4.3 Speed of Francis Turbines................................................................292
11.5 Axial Flow Reaction Turbines: Propeller and Kaplan...................................294
11.5.1 Propeller and Kaplan Turbines.........................................................295
11.5.2 Bulb Turbines...................................................................................299
11.6 Governors......................................................................................................299
11.7 Pumps as Turbines.........................................................................................300
11.7.1 Suitable Range of Heads and Flows.................................................300
11.8 Reversible Pump Turbines for Pumped Storage............................................303
References................................................................................................................305
Chapter 12 Very Low Head and River Current Turbines...........................................................307
12.1 Very Low Head Turbines...............................................................................307
12.1.1 Axial Flow VLH Designs................................................................307
12.1.2 Natel Energy.....................................................................................309
12.1.3 Archimedes Screw Turbine..............................................................310
12.2 Water Current Turbines.................................................................................312
12.2.1 Power Available in Flowing Water...................................................313
12.2.2 Types of Water Current Turbines.....................................................315
12.2.2.1 Axial Water Current Turbines..........................................315
12.2.2.2 Tidal Marine Turbines......................................................316
12.2.2.3 Cross-Axis Water Current Turbines.................................318
References................................................................................................................321
Chapter 13 Electrical Power.......................................................................................................323
13.1 Fundamentals of Electricity and Magnetism................................................323
13.1.1 Electrical Power...............................................................................325
13.1.2 Alternating Current..........................................................................325
13.1.2.1 Root Mean Square (RMS)................................................326
13.1.2.2 Power Factor.....................................................................327
13.1.3 Three Phase AC................................................................................334
13.1.3.1 Three-Phase Circuits........................................................334
13.2 Generators.....................................................................................................337
13.2.1 Generator Theory.............................................................................337
13.2.2 Direct Current Generators................................................................339
13.2.3 Alternating Current Generators.......................................................340
13.2.3.1 Synchronous Generators...................................................340
13.2.3.2 Induction Generators........................................................346
13.3 Electronic Control of Hydropower Systems..................................................354
13.3.1 Electronic Load Control...................................................................354
13.3.1.1 Phase Angle Control.........................................................355
13.3.1.2 Relay Switched on Loads..................................................356
13.3.1.3 Mark–Space Ratio Controller...........................................357
13.4 Transmission and Distribution......................................................................358
13.4.1 Battery Charging Systems................................................................358
13.4.2 AC Transmission and Distribution...................................................358
13.4.2.1 Single Phase Two Wire.....................................................359
13.4.2.2 Split-Phase (Single-Phase, Three-Wire)...........................360
13.4.2.3 Three-Phase Star (Four Wire)..........................................361
13.4.2.4 Three-Phase Delta (Three Wire)......................................361
13.4.3 Transformers....................................................................................362
13.4.4 Conductors........................................................................................364
13.4.5 Insulators..........................................................................................369
13.4.6 Poles and Transmission Towers........................................................369
13.4.7 Grounding for Safety and Lightning Protection..............................371
References................................................................................................................373
Chapter 14 Economic Analysis of Infrastructure Projects.........................................................375
14.1 Financial Analysis of Infrastructure Projects...............................................375
14.2 Basic Concepts in Financial Analysis for Hydropower Projects...................376
14.2.1 Equivalence of Kind.........................................................................376
14.2.2 Production........................................................................................376
14.2.3 Equivalence of Time........................................................................376
14.2.4 Whose Viewpoint?...........................................................................377
14.2.5 Incremental Costs and Benefits........................................................377
14.3 Methods of Financial Analysis......................................................................377
14.3.1 Present Worth Comparison..............................................................377
14.3.2 Future Worth Comparison................................................................380
14.3.3 Benefit–Cost Ratio Comparison.......................................................382
14.3.4 Equivalent Uniform Annual Worth Comparison.............................382
14.3.5 Internal Rate of Return Comparison................................................383
14.4 Investment Criteria........................................................................................384
14.5 Optimization of Installed Capacity Based on Hydrology and Financial
Analysis.........................................................................................................388
14.5.1 What If a Project Is Economically, but Not Financially, Viable?....391
14.5.2 Some Complications in Financial Analysis.....................................391
Chapter 15 Participatory Processes in Hydropower Development.............................................393
15.1 Environmental and Social Impacts of Hydropower Development................393
15.2 Gaining Public Acceptance and Sharing Benefits of Hydropower
with Local Communities...............................................................................395
15.2.1 Gaining Public Acceptance..............................................................395
15.2.2 Recognizing Entitlements and Sharing Benefits..............................396
15.3 Community Mobilization..............................................................................396
15.4 Gender Aspects of Village Hydropower Development.................................399
15.5 Financing of Community Hydropower Projects............................................401
References................................................................................................................401

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