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EBOOK - Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles - Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions (Asif Faiz & Christopher S. Weaver & Michael P. Walsh)
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EBOOK - Ô nhiễm không khí từ phương tiện cơ giới - Tiêu chuẩn và công nghệ kiểm soát khí thải (Asif Faiz & Christopher S. Weaver & Michael P. Walsh).
CONTENTS:
Chapter 1 Emission Standards and Regulations 1
International Standards 2
U.S. Standards2
U.N. Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and European Union (EU) Standards6
Country and Other Standards 9
Argentina11
Australia11
Brazil12
Canada13
Chile14
China15
Colombia15
Eastern European Countries and the Russian Federation15
Hong Kong 16
India 17
Japan 18
Republic of Korea18
Malaysia19
Mexico19
Saudi Arabia 19
Singapore 19
Taiwan (China)20
Thailand20
Compliance with Standards 21
Certification or Type Approval21
Assembly Line Testing22
In-Use Surveillance and Recall 22
Warranty23
On-Board Diagnostic Systems23
Alternatives to Emission Standards 23
References 24
Chapter 2 Quantifying Vehicle Emissions25
Emissions Measurement and Testing Procedures 25
Exhaust Emissions Testing for Light-Duty Vehicles25
Exhaust Emissions Testing for Motorcycles and Mopeds29
Exhaust Emissions Testing for Heavy-Duty Vehicle Engines29
Contents
vi Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles
Crankcase Emissions32
Evaporative Emissions32
Refueling Emissions33
On-Road Exhaust Emissions33
Vehicle Emission Factors 33
Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles37
Diesel-Fueled Vehicles39
Motorcycles43
References 46
Appendix 2.1 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 49
Appendix 2.2 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles 57
Chapter 3 Vehicle Technology for Controlling Emissions63
Automotive Engine Types 64
Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines 64
Diesel Engines64
Rotary (Wankel) Engines65
Gas-Turbine (Brayton) Engines65
Steam (Rankine Engines) 65
Stirling Engines 65
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles65
Control Technology for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles (Spark-Ignition Engines) 65
Air-Fuel Ratio66
Electronic Control Systems66
Catalytic Converters67
Crankcase Emissions and Control67
Evaporative Emissions and Control67
Fuel Dispensing/Distribution Emissions and Control69
Control Technology for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles (Compression-Ignition Engines) 69
Engine Design70
Exhaust Aftertreatment71
Emission Control Options and Costs 73
Gasoline-Fueled Passenger Cars and Light-Duty Trucks73
Heavy-Duty Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles76
Motorcycles76
Diesel-Fueled Vehicles76
References 79
Appendix 3.1 Emission Control Technology for Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines 81
Appendix 3.2 Emission Control Technology for Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engines 101
Appendix 3.3 The Potential for Improved Fuel Economy 119
Chapter 4 Controlling Emissions from In-Use Vehicles127
Inspection and Maintenance Programs 127
Vehicle Types Covered 129
Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Spark-Ignition Engines 130
Exhaust Emissions131
Evaporative Emissions133
Motorcycle White Smoke Emissions133
Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Diesel Engines 133
Institutional Setting for Inspection and Maintenance 135
Centralized I/M136
Decentralized I/M137
Comparison of Centralized and Decentralized I/M Programs138
Inspection Frequency 140
Vehicle Registration140
Roadside Inspection Programs 140
Contents vii
Emission Standards for Inspection and Maintenance Programs 141
Costs and Benefits of Inspection and Maintenance Programs 144
Emission Improvements and Fuel Economy149
Impact on Tampering and Misfueling 151
Cost-Effectiveness153
International Experience with Inspection and Maintenance Programs 154
Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions 159
Evaluation of Remote-Sensing Data162
On-Board Diagnostic Systems 164
Vehicle Replacement and Retrofit Programs 164
Scrappage and Relocation Programs 165
Vehicle Replacement165
Retrofit Programs166
Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems 167
References 168
Appendix 4.1 Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions: Operating Principles, Capabilities, and Limitations 171
Chapter 5 Fuel Options for Controlling Emissions175
Gasoline 176
Lead and Octane Number 176
Fuel Volatility 179
Olefins180
Aromatic Hydrocarbons180
Distillation Properties181
Oxygenates182
Sulfur 183
Fuel Additives to Control Deposits 184
Reformulated Gasoline 184
Diesel 186
Sulfur Content 187
Cetane Number 188
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 188
Other Fuel Properties 189
Fuel Additives 190
Effect of Diesel Fuel Properties on Emissions: Summary of EPEFE Results 191
Alternative Fuels 193
Natural Gas 195
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 200
Methanol 202
Ethanol 204
Biodiesel 206
Hydrogen 210
Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 211
Factors Influencing the Large-Scale Use of Alternative Fuels 213
Cost 213
End-Use Considerations 215
Life-Cycle Emissions 216
Conclusions 218
References 219
Appendix 5.1 International Use of Lead in Gasoline 223
Appendix 5.2 Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 227
Appendix 5.3 Alternative Fuel Options for Urban Buses in Santiago, Chile: A Case Study 237
Abbreviations and Conversion Factors 241
Country Index 245
EBOOK - Ô nhiễm không khí từ phương tiện cơ giới - Tiêu chuẩn và công nghệ kiểm soát khí thải (Asif Faiz & Christopher S. Weaver & Michael P. Walsh).
CONTENTS:
Chapter 1 Emission Standards and Regulations 1
International Standards 2
U.S. Standards2
U.N. Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and European Union (EU) Standards6
Country and Other Standards 9
Argentina11
Australia11
Brazil12
Canada13
Chile14
China15
Colombia15
Eastern European Countries and the Russian Federation15
Hong Kong 16
India 17
Japan 18
Republic of Korea18
Malaysia19
Mexico19
Saudi Arabia 19
Singapore 19
Taiwan (China)20
Thailand20
Compliance with Standards 21
Certification or Type Approval21
Assembly Line Testing22
In-Use Surveillance and Recall 22
Warranty23
On-Board Diagnostic Systems23
Alternatives to Emission Standards 23
References 24
Chapter 2 Quantifying Vehicle Emissions25
Emissions Measurement and Testing Procedures 25
Exhaust Emissions Testing for Light-Duty Vehicles25
Exhaust Emissions Testing for Motorcycles and Mopeds29
Exhaust Emissions Testing for Heavy-Duty Vehicle Engines29
Contents
vi Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles
Crankcase Emissions32
Evaporative Emissions32
Refueling Emissions33
On-Road Exhaust Emissions33
Vehicle Emission Factors 33
Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles37
Diesel-Fueled Vehicles39
Motorcycles43
References 46
Appendix 2.1 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles 49
Appendix 2.2 Selected Exhaust Emission and Fuel Consumption Factors for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles 57
Chapter 3 Vehicle Technology for Controlling Emissions63
Automotive Engine Types 64
Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines 64
Diesel Engines64
Rotary (Wankel) Engines65
Gas-Turbine (Brayton) Engines65
Steam (Rankine Engines) 65
Stirling Engines 65
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles65
Control Technology for Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles (Spark-Ignition Engines) 65
Air-Fuel Ratio66
Electronic Control Systems66
Catalytic Converters67
Crankcase Emissions and Control67
Evaporative Emissions and Control67
Fuel Dispensing/Distribution Emissions and Control69
Control Technology for Diesel-Fueled Vehicles (Compression-Ignition Engines) 69
Engine Design70
Exhaust Aftertreatment71
Emission Control Options and Costs 73
Gasoline-Fueled Passenger Cars and Light-Duty Trucks73
Heavy-Duty Gasoline-Fueled Vehicles76
Motorcycles76
Diesel-Fueled Vehicles76
References 79
Appendix 3.1 Emission Control Technology for Spark-Ignition (Otto) Engines 81
Appendix 3.2 Emission Control Technology for Compression-Ignition (Diesel) Engines 101
Appendix 3.3 The Potential for Improved Fuel Economy 119
Chapter 4 Controlling Emissions from In-Use Vehicles127
Inspection and Maintenance Programs 127
Vehicle Types Covered 129
Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Spark-Ignition Engines 130
Exhaust Emissions131
Evaporative Emissions133
Motorcycle White Smoke Emissions133
Inspection Procedures for Vehicles with Diesel Engines 133
Institutional Setting for Inspection and Maintenance 135
Centralized I/M136
Decentralized I/M137
Comparison of Centralized and Decentralized I/M Programs138
Inspection Frequency 140
Vehicle Registration140
Roadside Inspection Programs 140
Contents vii
Emission Standards for Inspection and Maintenance Programs 141
Costs and Benefits of Inspection and Maintenance Programs 144
Emission Improvements and Fuel Economy149
Impact on Tampering and Misfueling 151
Cost-Effectiveness153
International Experience with Inspection and Maintenance Programs 154
Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions 159
Evaluation of Remote-Sensing Data162
On-Board Diagnostic Systems 164
Vehicle Replacement and Retrofit Programs 164
Scrappage and Relocation Programs 165
Vehicle Replacement165
Retrofit Programs166
Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems 167
References 168
Appendix 4.1 Remote Sensing of Vehicle Emissions: Operating Principles, Capabilities, and Limitations 171
Chapter 5 Fuel Options for Controlling Emissions175
Gasoline 176
Lead and Octane Number 176
Fuel Volatility 179
Olefins180
Aromatic Hydrocarbons180
Distillation Properties181
Oxygenates182
Sulfur 183
Fuel Additives to Control Deposits 184
Reformulated Gasoline 184
Diesel 186
Sulfur Content 187
Cetane Number 188
Aromatic Hydrocarbons 188
Other Fuel Properties 189
Fuel Additives 190
Effect of Diesel Fuel Properties on Emissions: Summary of EPEFE Results 191
Alternative Fuels 193
Natural Gas 195
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 200
Methanol 202
Ethanol 204
Biodiesel 206
Hydrogen 210
Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 211
Factors Influencing the Large-Scale Use of Alternative Fuels 213
Cost 213
End-Use Considerations 215
Life-Cycle Emissions 216
Conclusions 218
References 219
Appendix 5.1 International Use of Lead in Gasoline 223
Appendix 5.2 Electric and Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 227
Appendix 5.3 Alternative Fuel Options for Urban Buses in Santiago, Chile: A Case Study 237
Abbreviations and Conversion Factors 241
Country Index 245
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