EBOOK - Refrigeration Systems and Application - Hệ thống lạnh và ứng dụng (Ibrahim Dincer - Mehmet Kanoglu)


Refrigeration is an amazing area where science and engineering meet for solving the humankind’s cooling and refrigeration needs in an extensive range of applications, ranging from the cooling of electronic devices to food cooling, and has a multidisciplinary character, involving a combination of several disciplines, including mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, chemistry, food engineering, civil engineering and many more. 
The refrigeration industry has drastically expanded during the past two decades to play a significant role in societies and their economies. Therefore, the economic impact of refrigeration technology throughout the world has become more impressive and will continue to become even more impressive in the future because of the increasing demand for refrigeration systems and applications. Of course, this technology serves to improve living conditions in countless ways.

1 General Aspects of Thermodynamics, Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Systems of Units 2
1.2 Thermodynamic Properties 2
1.2.1 Mass, Length and Force 2
1.2.2 Specific Volume and Density 3
1.2.3 Mass and Volumetric Flow Rates 3
1.2.4 Pressure 3
1.2.5 Temperature 6
1.2.6 Thermodynamic Systems 9
1.2.7 Process and Cycle 9
1.2.8 Property and State Postulate 10
1.2.9 Sensible Heat, Latent Heat and Latent Heat of Fusion 10
1.2.10 Vapor States 10
1.2.11 Thermodynamic Tables 11
1.2.12 State and Change of State 11
1.2.13 Pure Substance 13
1.2.14 Specific Heats 13
1.2.15 Specific Internal Energy 13
1.2.16 Specific Enthalpy 14
1.2.17 Specific Entropy 14
1.3 Ideal Gases 15
1.4 Energy Change and Energy Transfer 20
1.4.1 Mass Transfer 20
1.4.2 Heat Transfer 20
1.4.3 Work 20
1.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 21
1.6 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 22
1.7 The Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 23
1.8 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 26
1.9 Exergy 27
1.9.1 What is Exergy? 28
1.9.2 Reversibility and Irreversibility 29
1.9.3 Reversible Work and Exergy Destruction 29
1.9.4 Exergy Balance 30
1.9.5 Exergy or Second Law Efficiency 32
1.9.6 Illustrative Examples on Exergy 34
1.10 Psychrometrics 42
1.10.1 Common Definitions in Psychrometrics 43
1.10.2 Balance Equations for Air and Water Vapor Mixtures 44
1.10.3 The Psychrometric Chart 46
1.11 General Aspects of Fluid Flow 47
1.11.1 Classification of Fluid Flows 48
1.11.2 Viscosity 50
1.11.3 Continuity Equation 51
1.12 General Aspects of Heat Transfer 52
1.12.1 Conduction Heat Transfer 53
1.12.2 Convection Heat Transfer 54
1.12.3 Radiation Heat Transfer 56
1.13 Concluding Remarks 57
Nomenclature 57
Study Problems 59
References 62
2 Refrigerants 63
2.1 Introduction 63
2.1.1 Refrigerants 64
2.2 Classification of Refrigerants 64
2.2.1 Halocarbons 64
2.2.2 Hydrocarbons 65
2.2.3 Inorganic Compounds 65
2.2.4 Azeotropic Mixtures 67
2.2.5 Nonazeotropic Mixtures 67
2.3 Prefixes and Decoding of Refrigerants 67
2.3.1 Prefixes 67
2.3.2 Decoding the Number 68
2.3.3 Isomers 69
2.4 Secondary Refrigerants 70
2.5 Refrigerant–Absorbent Combinations 71
2.6 Stratospheric Ozone Layer 72
2.6.1 Stratospheric Ozone Layer Depletion 74
2.6.2 Ozone Depletion Potential 75
2.6.3 Montreal Protocol 79
2.7 Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming) 79
2.7.1 Global Warming Potential 80
2.8 Clean Air Act (CAA) 81
2.8.1 Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) 81
2.8.2 Classification of Substances 84
2.9 Alternative Refrigerants 86
2.9.1 R-134a 87
2.9.2 R-123 89
2.9.3 Nonazeotropic (Zeotropic) Mixtures 90
2.9.4 Azeotropic Mixtures 91
2.9.5 Ammonia (R-717) 92
2.9.6 Propane (R-290) 93
2.9.7 CO2(R-744) 93
2.10 Selection of Refrigerants 94
2.11 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants 95
2.12 Lubricating Oils and Their Effects 98
2.13 Concluding Remarks 99
Study Problems 100
References 103
3 Refrigeration System Components 105
3.1 Introduction 105
3.2 History of Refrigeration 105
3.3 Main Refrigeration Systems 107
3.4 Refrigeration System Components 108
3.5 Compressors 109
3.5.1 Hermetic Compressors 110
3.5.2 Semihermetic Compressors 111
3.5.3 Open Compressors 113
3.5.4 Displacement Compressors 113
3.5.5 Dynamic Compressors 119
3.5.6 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Compressors 122
3.5.7 Compressor Capacity and Performance 124
3.6 Condensers 129
3.6.1 Water-Cooled Condensers 130
3.6.2 Air-Cooled Condensers 130
3.6.3 Evaporative Condensers 131
3.6.4 Cooling Towers 132
3.6.5 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Condensers 133
3.7 Evaporators 135
3.7.1 Liquid Coolers 136
3.7.2 Air and Gas Coolers 137
3.7.3 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Evaporators 137
3.8 Throttling Devices 140
3.8.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valves 140
3.8.2 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valves 141
viii Contents
3.8.3 Float Valves 141
3.8.4 Capillary Tubes 141
3.8.5 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Throttling Devices 142
3.9 Auxiliary Devices 144
3.9.1 Accumulators 144
3.9.2 Receivers 144
3.9.3 Oil Separators 146
3.9.4 Strainers 146
3.9.5 Driers 146
3.9.6 Check Valves 146
3.9.7 Solenoid Valves 147
3.9.8 Defrost Controllers 147
3.10 Concluding Remarks 148
Nomenclature 148
Study Problems 148
References 152
4 Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 155
4.1 Introduction 155
4.2 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 155
4.2.1 Evaporation 155
4.2.2 Compression 156
4.2.3 Condensation 156
4.2.4 Expansion 156
4.3 Energy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 158
4.4 Exergy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 161
4.5 Practical Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 166
4.5.1 Superheating and Subcooling 168
4.5.2 Defrosting 169
4.5.3 Purging Air in Refrigeration Systems 170
4.5.4 Twin Refrigeration System 175
4.6 Air-Standard Refrigeration Systems 176
4.6.1 Energy and Exergy Analyses of a Basic Air-Standard
Refrigeration Cycle 177
4.7 Absorption–Refrigeration Systems (ARSs) 182
4.7.1 Basic ARSs 184
4.7.2 Ammonia–Water (NH3–H2O) ARSs 185
4.7.3 Energy Analysis of an ARS 187
4.7.4 Three-Fluid (Gas Diffusion) ARSs 190
4.7.5 Water–Lithium Bromide (H2O–LiBr) ARSs 190
4.7.6 The Steam Ejector Recompression ARS 194
4.7.7 The Electrochemical ARS 195
4.7.8 The Absorption-Augmented Refrigeration System 197
4.7.9 Exergy Analysis of an ARS 203
4.7.10 Performance Evaluation of an ARS 207
4.8 Concluding Remarks 207
Nomenclature 208
Study Problems 208
References 218
5 Advanced Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 219
5.1 Introduction 219
5.2 Multistage Refrigeration Cycles 219
5.3 Cascade Refrigeration Systems 220
5.3.1 Two-Stage Cascade Systems 221
5.3.2 Three-Stage (Ternary) Cascade Refrigeration Systems 226
5.4 Liquefaction of Gases 226
5.4.1 Linde–Hampson Cycle 227
5.4.2 Precooled Linde–Hampson Liquefaction Cycle 237
5.4.3 Claude Cycle 239
5.4.4 Multistage Cascade Refrigeration Cycle Used for Natural Gas
Liquefaction 241
5.5 Steam Jet Refrigeration Systems 250
5.6 Thermoelectric Refrigeration 252
5.6.1 Significant Thermal Parameters 254
5.7 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration 256
5.8 Metal Hydride Refrigeration Systems 257
5.8.1 Operational Principles 258
5.9 Solar Refrigeration 260
5.9.1 Solar Refrigeration Systems 260
5.9.2 Solar-Powered Absorption Refrigeration Systems (ARSs) 261
5.10 Magnetic Refrigeration 262
5.11 Supermarket Refrigeration 263
5.11.1 Direct Expansion System 264
5.11.2 Distributed System 265
5.11.3 Secondary Loop System 266
5.12 Concluding Remarks 267
Nomenclature 267
Study Problems 267
References 273
6 Heat Pumps 275
6.1 Introduction 275
6.2 Heat Pumps 276
6.2.1 Heat Pump Efficiencies 277
6.2.2 Coefficient of Performance (COP) 277
6.2.3 Primary Energy Ratio (PER) 278
6.2.4 Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) 278
6.2.5 Heating Season Performance Factor (HSPF) 279
6.2.6 Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) 279
x Contents
6.3 Sectoral Heat Pump Utilization 279
6.3.1 Large Heat Pumps for District Heating and Cooling 282
6.4 Heat Pump Applications in Industry 283
6.5 Heat Sources 286
6.5.1 Air 287
6.5.2 Water 288
6.5.3 Soil and Geothermal 289
6.5.4 Solar 290
6.6 Classification of Heat Pumps 290
6.6.1 Water-to-Water Heat Pumps 291
6.6.2 Water-to-Air Heat Pumps 291
6.6.3 Air-to-Air Heat Pumps 293
6.6.4 Air-to-Water Heat Pumps 293
6.6.5 Ground-to-Water and Ground-to-Air Heat Pumps 293
6.6.6 Basic Heat Pump Designs 293
6.6.7 Heat and Cold-Air Distribution Systems 294
6.7 Solar Heat Pumps 294
6.8 Ice Source Heat Pumps 295
6.9 Main Heat Pump Systems 296
6.10 Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Systems 296
6.10.1 The Cooling Mode 300
6.10.2 The Heating Mode 300
6.10.3 Single-Stage Vapor-Compression Heat Pump with
Subcooler 301
6.10.4 Standard Rating Conditions for Compressors 302
.10.5 ARI/ISO Standard 13256-1 303
6.11 Energy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Cycle 305
6.12 Exergy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Cycle 306
6.13 Mechanical Vapor-Recompression (MVR) Heat Pump Systems 311
6.14 Cascaded Heat Pump Systems 312
6.15 Rankine-Powered Heat Pump Systems 312
6.16 Quasi-Open-Cycle Heat Pump Systems 314
6.17 Vapor Jet Heat Pump Systems 315
6.18 Chemical Heat Pump Systems 315
6.19 Metal Hydride Heat Pump Systems 318
6.20 Thermoelectric Heat Pump Systems 319
6.21 Resorption Heat Pump Systems 321
6.22 Absorption Heat Pump (AHP) Systems 323
6.22.1 Diffusion Absorption Heat Pumps 328
6.22.2 Special-Type Absorption Heat Pumps 328
6.22.3 Advantages of Absorption Heat Pumps 330
6.22.4 Disadvantages of Absorption Heat Pumps 330
6.22.5 Mesoscopic Heat-Actuated Absorption Heat Pump 333
6.23 Heat Transformer Heat Pump Systems 334
6.24 Refrigerants and Working Fluids 335
6.24.1 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 336


Refrigeration is an amazing area where science and engineering meet for solving the humankind’s cooling and refrigeration needs in an extensive range of applications, ranging from the cooling of electronic devices to food cooling, and has a multidisciplinary character, involving a combination of several disciplines, including mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, chemistry, food engineering, civil engineering and many more. 
The refrigeration industry has drastically expanded during the past two decades to play a significant role in societies and their economies. Therefore, the economic impact of refrigeration technology throughout the world has become more impressive and will continue to become even more impressive in the future because of the increasing demand for refrigeration systems and applications. Of course, this technology serves to improve living conditions in countless ways.

1 General Aspects of Thermodynamics, Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Systems of Units 2
1.2 Thermodynamic Properties 2
1.2.1 Mass, Length and Force 2
1.2.2 Specific Volume and Density 3
1.2.3 Mass and Volumetric Flow Rates 3
1.2.4 Pressure 3
1.2.5 Temperature 6
1.2.6 Thermodynamic Systems 9
1.2.7 Process and Cycle 9
1.2.8 Property and State Postulate 10
1.2.9 Sensible Heat, Latent Heat and Latent Heat of Fusion 10
1.2.10 Vapor States 10
1.2.11 Thermodynamic Tables 11
1.2.12 State and Change of State 11
1.2.13 Pure Substance 13
1.2.14 Specific Heats 13
1.2.15 Specific Internal Energy 13
1.2.16 Specific Enthalpy 14
1.2.17 Specific Entropy 14
1.3 Ideal Gases 15
1.4 Energy Change and Energy Transfer 20
1.4.1 Mass Transfer 20
1.4.2 Heat Transfer 20
1.4.3 Work 20
1.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 21
1.6 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 22
1.7 The Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 23
1.8 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 26
1.9 Exergy 27
1.9.1 What is Exergy? 28
1.9.2 Reversibility and Irreversibility 29
1.9.3 Reversible Work and Exergy Destruction 29
1.9.4 Exergy Balance 30
1.9.5 Exergy or Second Law Efficiency 32
1.9.6 Illustrative Examples on Exergy 34
1.10 Psychrometrics 42
1.10.1 Common Definitions in Psychrometrics 43
1.10.2 Balance Equations for Air and Water Vapor Mixtures 44
1.10.3 The Psychrometric Chart 46
1.11 General Aspects of Fluid Flow 47
1.11.1 Classification of Fluid Flows 48
1.11.2 Viscosity 50
1.11.3 Continuity Equation 51
1.12 General Aspects of Heat Transfer 52
1.12.1 Conduction Heat Transfer 53
1.12.2 Convection Heat Transfer 54
1.12.3 Radiation Heat Transfer 56
1.13 Concluding Remarks 57
Nomenclature 57
Study Problems 59
References 62
2 Refrigerants 63
2.1 Introduction 63
2.1.1 Refrigerants 64
2.2 Classification of Refrigerants 64
2.2.1 Halocarbons 64
2.2.2 Hydrocarbons 65
2.2.3 Inorganic Compounds 65
2.2.4 Azeotropic Mixtures 67
2.2.5 Nonazeotropic Mixtures 67
2.3 Prefixes and Decoding of Refrigerants 67
2.3.1 Prefixes 67
2.3.2 Decoding the Number 68
2.3.3 Isomers 69
2.4 Secondary Refrigerants 70
2.5 Refrigerant–Absorbent Combinations 71
2.6 Stratospheric Ozone Layer 72
2.6.1 Stratospheric Ozone Layer Depletion 74
2.6.2 Ozone Depletion Potential 75
2.6.3 Montreal Protocol 79
2.7 Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming) 79
2.7.1 Global Warming Potential 80
2.8 Clean Air Act (CAA) 81
2.8.1 Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) 81
2.8.2 Classification of Substances 84
2.9 Alternative Refrigerants 86
2.9.1 R-134a 87
2.9.2 R-123 89
2.9.3 Nonazeotropic (Zeotropic) Mixtures 90
2.9.4 Azeotropic Mixtures 91
2.9.5 Ammonia (R-717) 92
2.9.6 Propane (R-290) 93
2.9.7 CO2(R-744) 93
2.10 Selection of Refrigerants 94
2.11 Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants 95
2.12 Lubricating Oils and Their Effects 98
2.13 Concluding Remarks 99
Study Problems 100
References 103
3 Refrigeration System Components 105
3.1 Introduction 105
3.2 History of Refrigeration 105
3.3 Main Refrigeration Systems 107
3.4 Refrigeration System Components 108
3.5 Compressors 109
3.5.1 Hermetic Compressors 110
3.5.2 Semihermetic Compressors 111
3.5.3 Open Compressors 113
3.5.4 Displacement Compressors 113
3.5.5 Dynamic Compressors 119
3.5.6 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Compressors 122
3.5.7 Compressor Capacity and Performance 124
3.6 Condensers 129
3.6.1 Water-Cooled Condensers 130
3.6.2 Air-Cooled Condensers 130
3.6.3 Evaporative Condensers 131
3.6.4 Cooling Towers 132
3.6.5 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Condensers 133
3.7 Evaporators 135
3.7.1 Liquid Coolers 136
3.7.2 Air and Gas Coolers 137
3.7.3 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Evaporators 137
3.8 Throttling Devices 140
3.8.1 Thermostatic Expansion Valves 140
3.8.2 Constant-Pressure Expansion Valves 141
viii Contents
3.8.3 Float Valves 141
3.8.4 Capillary Tubes 141
3.8.5 Energy and Exergy Analyses of Throttling Devices 142
3.9 Auxiliary Devices 144
3.9.1 Accumulators 144
3.9.2 Receivers 144
3.9.3 Oil Separators 146
3.9.4 Strainers 146
3.9.5 Driers 146
3.9.6 Check Valves 146
3.9.7 Solenoid Valves 147
3.9.8 Defrost Controllers 147
3.10 Concluding Remarks 148
Nomenclature 148
Study Problems 148
References 152
4 Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 155
4.1 Introduction 155
4.2 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 155
4.2.1 Evaporation 155
4.2.2 Compression 156
4.2.3 Condensation 156
4.2.4 Expansion 156
4.3 Energy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 158
4.4 Exergy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 161
4.5 Practical Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 166
4.5.1 Superheating and Subcooling 168
4.5.2 Defrosting 169
4.5.3 Purging Air in Refrigeration Systems 170
4.5.4 Twin Refrigeration System 175
4.6 Air-Standard Refrigeration Systems 176
4.6.1 Energy and Exergy Analyses of a Basic Air-Standard
Refrigeration Cycle 177
4.7 Absorption–Refrigeration Systems (ARSs) 182
4.7.1 Basic ARSs 184
4.7.2 Ammonia–Water (NH3–H2O) ARSs 185
4.7.3 Energy Analysis of an ARS 187
4.7.4 Three-Fluid (Gas Diffusion) ARSs 190
4.7.5 Water–Lithium Bromide (H2O–LiBr) ARSs 190
4.7.6 The Steam Ejector Recompression ARS 194
4.7.7 The Electrochemical ARS 195
4.7.8 The Absorption-Augmented Refrigeration System 197
4.7.9 Exergy Analysis of an ARS 203
4.7.10 Performance Evaluation of an ARS 207
4.8 Concluding Remarks 207
Nomenclature 208
Study Problems 208
References 218
5 Advanced Refrigeration Cycles and Systems 219
5.1 Introduction 219
5.2 Multistage Refrigeration Cycles 219
5.3 Cascade Refrigeration Systems 220
5.3.1 Two-Stage Cascade Systems 221
5.3.2 Three-Stage (Ternary) Cascade Refrigeration Systems 226
5.4 Liquefaction of Gases 226
5.4.1 Linde–Hampson Cycle 227
5.4.2 Precooled Linde–Hampson Liquefaction Cycle 237
5.4.3 Claude Cycle 239
5.4.4 Multistage Cascade Refrigeration Cycle Used for Natural Gas
Liquefaction 241
5.5 Steam Jet Refrigeration Systems 250
5.6 Thermoelectric Refrigeration 252
5.6.1 Significant Thermal Parameters 254
5.7 Thermoacoustic Refrigeration 256
5.8 Metal Hydride Refrigeration Systems 257
5.8.1 Operational Principles 258
5.9 Solar Refrigeration 260
5.9.1 Solar Refrigeration Systems 260
5.9.2 Solar-Powered Absorption Refrigeration Systems (ARSs) 261
5.10 Magnetic Refrigeration 262
5.11 Supermarket Refrigeration 263
5.11.1 Direct Expansion System 264
5.11.2 Distributed System 265
5.11.3 Secondary Loop System 266
5.12 Concluding Remarks 267
Nomenclature 267
Study Problems 267
References 273
6 Heat Pumps 275
6.1 Introduction 275
6.2 Heat Pumps 276
6.2.1 Heat Pump Efficiencies 277
6.2.2 Coefficient of Performance (COP) 277
6.2.3 Primary Energy Ratio (PER) 278
6.2.4 Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) 278
6.2.5 Heating Season Performance Factor (HSPF) 279
6.2.6 Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) 279
x Contents
6.3 Sectoral Heat Pump Utilization 279
6.3.1 Large Heat Pumps for District Heating and Cooling 282
6.4 Heat Pump Applications in Industry 283
6.5 Heat Sources 286
6.5.1 Air 287
6.5.2 Water 288
6.5.3 Soil and Geothermal 289
6.5.4 Solar 290
6.6 Classification of Heat Pumps 290
6.6.1 Water-to-Water Heat Pumps 291
6.6.2 Water-to-Air Heat Pumps 291
6.6.3 Air-to-Air Heat Pumps 293
6.6.4 Air-to-Water Heat Pumps 293
6.6.5 Ground-to-Water and Ground-to-Air Heat Pumps 293
6.6.6 Basic Heat Pump Designs 293
6.6.7 Heat and Cold-Air Distribution Systems 294
6.7 Solar Heat Pumps 294
6.8 Ice Source Heat Pumps 295
6.9 Main Heat Pump Systems 296
6.10 Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Systems 296
6.10.1 The Cooling Mode 300
6.10.2 The Heating Mode 300
6.10.3 Single-Stage Vapor-Compression Heat Pump with
Subcooler 301
6.10.4 Standard Rating Conditions for Compressors 302
.10.5 ARI/ISO Standard 13256-1 303
6.11 Energy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Cycle 305
6.12 Exergy Analysis of Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Cycle 306
6.13 Mechanical Vapor-Recompression (MVR) Heat Pump Systems 311
6.14 Cascaded Heat Pump Systems 312
6.15 Rankine-Powered Heat Pump Systems 312
6.16 Quasi-Open-Cycle Heat Pump Systems 314
6.17 Vapor Jet Heat Pump Systems 315
6.18 Chemical Heat Pump Systems 315
6.19 Metal Hydride Heat Pump Systems 318
6.20 Thermoelectric Heat Pump Systems 319
6.21 Resorption Heat Pump Systems 321
6.22 Absorption Heat Pump (AHP) Systems 323
6.22.1 Diffusion Absorption Heat Pumps 328
6.22.2 Special-Type Absorption Heat Pumps 328
6.22.3 Advantages of Absorption Heat Pumps 330
6.22.4 Disadvantages of Absorption Heat Pumps 330
6.22.5 Mesoscopic Heat-Actuated Absorption Heat Pump 333
6.23 Heat Transformer Heat Pump Systems 334
6.24 Refrigerants and Working Fluids 335
6.24.1 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 336

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